Reinforcer Assessment for Applied Behavior Analysis

Reinforcer Assessment for Applied Behavior Analysis The foundational premise of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is that when behavior is reinforced, it is more likely to reoccur. When behavior is repeatedly reinforced, it becomes learned behavior. When we teach, we want students to learn specific behaviors. When students have problem behaviors, we need to teach alternative or replacement behavior. The replacement behavior needs to serve the same Function as the problem behavior, as the function is the way in which the behavior is reinforced for the child. In other words, if a behavior functions to provide a child attention, and the attention is reinforcing, the behavior will continue. Changeability of Reinforcement Many items can be reinforcing for a child. What is reinforcing is related to the function and the value of the function for a child. At different points certain different functions will have more importance than others to individual children: at some point, it may be attention, at another, it might be a preferred item or avoidance. For the purposes of Discrete Trials.  reinforcers that can be readily available and given and withdrawn quickly are the most effective. They may be toys, sensory items (spinning lights, musical toys, squishy toys/balls,) preferred items (dolls or Disney characters) or even escape, access to a break area. Sometimes edibles (candy or crackers) are used, but it is important that they are quickly paired with more appropriate social reinforcers. Not every item that is reinforcing for a child remains reinforcing. It may depend on the time of day, satiation, or the childs mood. Its important to have a rich menu of reinforcement that you can use with individual students when attempting to use ABA to teach or change behavior. Thats why it is important to attempt as many different kinds of reinforcers as possible, from preferred toys to sensory items. Ask About a Childs Preferences Parents and caregivers are a good place to start when exploring reinforcers. You can ask for the childs personal preferences: What does he/she enjoy doing when they can choose themselves? Does he/she have a favorite television character? Does he or she perseverate on that particular character? Parents and caregivers can give you some insight into the childs interests that will give you a sense of the kinds of preferences the child will find reinforcing. Non-Contingent Assessment The first step in assessing reinforcers is to give a child access to a number of items that The first step in assessing reinforcers is to give a child access to a number of items that young children would find appealing. Try to include items that the parent or caregiver has already indicated is a preferred item. It is called non-contingent because access to the reinforcer is not contingent on the childs behavior. To what items does the child gravitate? Note anything that the child picks up to assess again. Note any themes: is there a preference for musical toys, for specific characters? Does the child use cars or other toys appropriately? How does the child play with the toys? Does the child choose self-stimulation instead of toys? Can you engage the child in play with any of the toys? Once you have seen the child in the presence of the toys, you can list preferred items and eliminate those that they have shown little interest in. Structured Assessments Through your unstructured assessment, you have discovered which items your student gravitates to. Now, you want to find your most powerful (A ) reinforcers and which you will keep back for when the student is satiated with his or her A reinforcers. That is done by systematically laying small numbers of items (often just two) in front of the child and seeing what preferences he or she expresses. Concurrent Schedule Reinforcer Assessment: Two or more reinforcers are presented as a response to a target behavior, and the preference is noted. The reinforcers are switched out, to compare later with other reinforcers. Multiple Schedule Reinforcer Schedule: A reinforcer is used in contingent setting (such as social attention for appropriate play) and later in a non-contingent setting (without a requirement of appropriate play.) If the appropriate play increases despite the fact the child is getting non-contingent attention later in the day, it is assumed that the reinforcer is effective for increasing play. Progressive Ratio Schedule Reinforcer Assessment: A reinforcer is checked to see if it continues to increase response when response demand is increased. So, if a reinforcer stops eliciting the response you want when you expect more responses, it is not as powerful a reinforcer as you thought. If it does . . . stick with it. Reinforcement Suggestions Edibles: Edibles are never the first choice of an ABA practitioner since you want to move into secondary reinforcers as quickly as possible. Still, for children with severe disabilities, especially older children with poor functional and social skills, edibles may be the way to engage them and begin building behavioral momentum. Some suggestions: CrackersPieces of fruitSmall individual candies, like Skittles or M and Ms.Preferred foods. Some children with autism love dill pickles. Sensory Items: Children with autism spectrum disorders often have issues with sensory integration, and crave sensory input. Items which provide that input, like spinning lights or musical toys, can be powerful reinforcers for young children with disabilities. Some reinforcers are: Spinning lights or vibrating pens. These kinds of sensory items can be found in catalogs for special educators. If you dont have access to the catalogs, your occupational therapist may actually have some of these items.Gross motor activities, like bouncing on a pilates ball, or a ceiling hung swing.Tickles or direct sensory input. This is most appropriate for very young children, but it may also help pair reinforcement with the therapist/teacher. Preferred Items and Toys Many children with disabilities love television and often perseverate on favorite television characters, like Mickey Mouse or Dora the Explorer. Combining these strong preferences with toys may make some items powerful reinforcers. Some ideas: Sound books with favorite characters. I have found these to be good reinforcers for young children.Jointed action figuresCars, trucks, and track.Thomas the Tank Engine trains.Small animal figures.Blocks. Ongoing Assessment Childrens interests change. So may the items or activities that they find reinforcing. At the same time, a practitioner should be moving to spread out reinforcement and pair primary reinforcers with secondary reinforcers, like social interaction and praise. As children succeed in gaining new skills through ABA, they will move away from the short and frequent bursts of instruction that is discrete trial teaching toward more traditional and naturalistic methods of instruction. Some may even begin to reinforce themselves, by internalizing the values of competence and mastery.

New Technology High Schools Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

New Technology High Schools - Research Paper Example New Tech High Schools provide the students new techniques to acquire education and collaborate with their peers. The inventive form of education proves to be more effective than the conventional methods of teaching. It is due to this reason that the respective concept is gaining fame. Different advantageous aspects of New Tech High Schools shall be discussed in the paper, along with few responses to the negative perception of this concept. 2. New Tech High Schools The 21st century differs from the previous era with respect to the exposure to different technological inventions and facilities of life. The modern youth is more engrossed with technological equipments than the older people in the society. This early exposure has improved their mental capabilities and has induced a greater sense of logical thinking in them. Pearlman stated that despite of their logical and advanced mental capabilities, they seem disinterested in their academic processes of learning. The conventional modes of learning are not effective enough to cater to the demands of the 21st century and the modern youth. It is due to these issues that new modes of teaching and acquiring education have been devised- New Tech High Schools. These learning processes can be termed as an amalgamation of technology and required skills to meet the challenges of the 21st century colleges and workplaces. The concept initiated in 1996 in California; it was introduced due to the frustration of students, business leaders and parents for wanting a better educational standard. The concept has witnessed nothing but success since then. Much development has been witnessed in the state of Indiana; CELL introduced the innovative concept in Indiana and three schools successfully opened in 2007. The learning processes and programs of New Tech High Schools impressed the members of the Indiana society to such a great extent that they embraced the change with open arms. Indiana has become a national leader in the implement ation of New Tech High Schools in different states of US. According to Pearlman; in the early years of the materialization of the idea, few learning outcomes were identified as the main aims of the concept; content standards, collaboration between the students, logical thinking, oral and written communication skills, preparation for college education and professional life, awareness of ethics and social responsibilities and technological awareness. 2.1 Collaborative Learning Processes New Tech High Schools offer collaborative learning and team work that empowers the students to choose their own direction to acquire education. Center of Excellence in Leadership of Learning explained that the layout of a New Tech High School does not resemble the layout of a traditional school, since there are no desks or chairs placed in lines. On the contrary, students work on their computers and learn in a collaborative manner about a diverse range of topics. Large open spaces provide students the opportunity to work together as a team and coordinate their tasks. Collaborative learning provides the students opportunities to learn skills to survive

Letter to the grand duchess christina by galileo Essay

Letter to the grand duchess christina by galileo - Essay Example In explaining the concept of ‘two truths’, Galileo holds to the view that both the scriptures and science are true and the two truths do not contradict one another. Galileo supported his concept of two truths by giving examples that explaining how both science and scriptures reveal the truths about the universe and the nature of God. How Galileo supported his concept of the ‘two truths’ In order to support his statement that the scriptures and science are true and they do not contradict one another, Galileo states that the two truths proceed from the divine word. However, he makes it clear that discussions of physical problems has to start from necessary demonstration and sense experiences and not from scriptural experiences. in regard to science verses th scriptures, Galileo states that we should not believe anything any howly least we hold some prejudice against something that is later to be proofed not to be contrary to the scriptures. Galileo explains th at God is revealed first through nature and then again by doctrine. The revelation by nature comes through his works and revelation by doctrine comes through his revealed word (Drake 182).The scriptures explain that God is the creator of all. He made the heaven, the universe, earth and all in it. Galileo’s agreement with this is seen where he complains of having been accused as by other philosophers as if he has placed things in the sky to overturn sciences and upset nature. In essence, he meant that scientific discoveries are in no way a contradiction of the scriptural revelation of God as the creator but a proof of it. It helps to bring out the things he has created. Through the scriptures, we get to learn that God created man and this automatically qualifies human intellect, senses and reason as things given by God. The same God who granted the senses and reasons cannot deny the people the entrusted the intellect, senses and reasons not to use them. Galileo also argues tha t he does not believe the same God who gave us intellect, reason and senses has intended to forego their use and decided to give human beings knowledge through another means yet it is knowledge that they could have obtained through the use of the reason, senses and intellect (Drake 183). At the same time, God has revealed about the universe and nature through the scriptures. For example, he mentions oceans, clouds, deserts, animals, heavenly bodies like sun, moon and stars among others. It also reveals the functions or functioning of some for example the sun giving light. However, these revelations and explanation are not in totality. For example they do not explain how the heavenly bodies are positioned and move about relative to one another. This means there was a chance for men to use the reasons and senses entrusted to them to discover the details of these creations and therefore discoveries are never a contradiction of the scriptures. As seen above, science helps to explain to those who believe in the scriptures some of the truths that the scriptures does not bring out plainly. As Galileo reveals, some of these questions are those asked by believers of the scriptures for example the motion of heaven. One question that emerges from the brethren is, if heaven is fixed, then how do stars that are fixed to it move from east to west? (Taylor 93). It is obvious they mean how the stars move round the earth because the scriptures reveal that heaven is where God dwells and it is a spiritual place. This means that it is not visible with the mortal eyes and

How Does Steinbeck Present Disadvantaged Characters to Us Essay Example for Free

How Does Steinbeck Present Disadvantaged Characters to Us Essay Steinbeck presents disadvantaged characters to us using a number of techniques. The author does this to encourage us to sympathise and begin to understand the characters, in order to show the problems with prejudice and the various types of it which were endemic in American society in this time. Lennie is firstly presented to us through the author’s use of animal imagery in the description, and the readers first impression of Lennie is how animal like he is when phrases like ‘snorting†¦like a horse’ are used. The author does this to show that Lennie is gentle, like an animal and can be tamed like domestic animals are. It also shows Lennie will only attack on instinct and become violent when he feels threatened or under attack. This is shown when he says ‘I didn’t want no trouble’ showing that he didn’t mean to do any harm and just doesn’t realise his own strength. The author also presents Lennie in this way because animals are innocent and do not have the capacity to act morally or know good from bad. This shows Lennie’s behaviour, when he acts violently, is a result of society as society taunts him until he behaves in this way. Lennie is also presented to the readers as a vulnerable character, through the author’s description of Lennie’s actions, especially after his attack from Curley when he ‘bleated with terror’ and ‘crouched cowering’. This action emphasises his dependence on George as he couldn’t defend himself without George telling him to. His dependence on George is also made totally clear when he says ‘me an’ him goes ever’ place together’ When Lennie panics he starts to loose control and the author presents this to the readers through the structure of the text and Lennie’s dialogue. Lennie’s sentences become short and staccato like when he says phrases such as ‘please don’t’ and ‘now don’t you do that’ showing his evident panic. The readers can also tell that Lennie looses control because the author uses language such as ‘(lennie’s) face was contorted’. The author does this to show Lennie doesn’t mean to kill or hurt and does it out of panic and instinct. This is shown by Lennie himself when he says ‘I done a real bad thing†¦ George’ll be mad’ which shows Lennie realises he can’t control himself and that he has no moral judgement. It also shows Lennie thinks things are ‘good’ or ‘bad’ to him depending on what George will think of him. The author presents Lennie to us, as a disadvantaged character, in the way he has a child’s mind in a mans body. This not only enables us to see the way in which society treats people such as Lennie but it gives us an insight into the feelings of black people as lennie, being socially unaware and childlike, does not realise the social boundries of white people and goes to talk to crooks.

Walt Whitmans Drum-Taps :: Walt Whitman Drum-Taps Essays

Walt Whitman's Drum-Taps - The Personal Record of Whitman’s Wartime Experiences Walt Whitman is one of America’s most popular and most influential poets. The first edition of Whitman’s well-known Leaves of Grass first appeared in July of the poet’s thirty-sixth year. A subsequent edition of Leaves of Grass (of which there were many) incorporated a collection of Whitman’s poems that had been offered readers in 1865. The sequence added for the 1867 edition was Drum-Taps, which poetically recounts the author’s experiences of the American Civil War. Walt Whitman was born May 31, 1819, in West Hills, Long Island. His early years included much contact with words and writing; he worked as an office boy as a pre-teen, then later as a printer, journalist, and, briefly, a teacher, returning eventually to his first love and life’s work—writing. Despite the lack of extensive formal education, Whitman experienced literature, "reading voraciously from the literary classics and the Bible, and was deeply influenced by Goethe, Carlyle, Emerson, and Sir Walter Scott" (Introduction vii). Whitman was drawn to the nations capital roughly a year after the Civil War began, at the age of forty-three. The wounding of his brother, George Washington Whitman, who served in the Union Army, precipitated his contact with the carnage of the war. Reading the notice of his brother’s injury in the New York Herald, Whitman went immediately to Falmouth, Virginia, where he found his brotherly only slightly wounded. Perpetually short-handed, Army officials asked the poet to help transport injured soldiers to field hospitals in Washington. Whitman agreed, and began a mission of mercy that would occupy him from 1862 until the war’s end in 1865 (Murray). Drum-Taps is the personal-historical record of Whitman’s wartime occupation. Drum-Taps’ early poems were written prior to Whitman’s contact with wounded soldiers, and betray a starkly different attitude toward the war than one finds later in the sequence. The chronologically earlier poems celebrate the coming hostilities, expressing Whitman’s "early near-mindless jingoism" (Norton 2130). As one progresses through the work, he finds a less energetic, sorrowful, jaded narrator who seems little like the exuberant youth who began. Understandable so, "[Whitman] estimated that over the course of the war, he had made ‘over 600 visits or tours, and went †¦ among from some 80,000 to 100,000 of the wounded and sick, as sustainer of spirit and body in some degree, in time of need’" (Murray). What follows is a contemporaneous review of his work that speaks of the esteem that much of the world extended Whitman as patriot and poet of Drum-Taps:

Aphrodite of Melos

Greek artists tried to create ideal beauty. Statues were not made to represent real, living people, but they were carved to show how the human body should look like. The picture in front of you is a sculpture of Aphrodite of Melos (Venus de Milo, in Roman mythology). For hundreds of years, the statue remained buried in an underground cavern, where it had been damaged and discovered in two parts. It was in 1820 AD (anno domini) when a peasant named Yorgos found her body on the Aegean island of Melos. Later, the sculpture was taken out of Greece under unclear circumstances and was taken to the Louvre Museum in Paris, France where it was admired by the millions of visitor’s of the country. This sculpture is considered by many art historians to be the ideal of Hellenistic beauty. It was carved out of marble and stands approximately 205 cm (6 ft 10 in) high. By looking at her we think, not of wisdom, or force, or power, but just of beauty. She stands resting the weight of her body on one foot, and advancing the other on a bent knee. The posture causes the figure to sway slightly to one side, describing a fine curved line. The lower limbs are draped, but the upper part of the body is uncovered and in some mysterious way, the sculptor has imparted to the marble a seeming softness as of real flesh. The head is as exquisitely set as a flower on its stalk. The parted hair is drawn back in rippling waves over the low forehead. The eyes are not very wide open, having something of a dreamy languor (tiredness). Melting eyes† are indeed characteristic of Aphrodite, and an analytical critic has explained that this effect is produced in sculpture by a â€Å"slight elevation of the inner corner of the lower eyelid. † The nose is perfectly cut. The mouth and chin are molded in adorable curves. Many wise heads have been puzzled to know the position of the missing arms. A hand holding an apple was also found on Melos, and this may have been a part of the figure; if so, Aphrodite was represented as the goddess of the â€Å"apple island†. Some have thought that the goddess carried a shield, and others ave fancied her holding the traditional apple. There have also been many discussions as to the date of the work. Now if the statue had been made in the fifth century B. C. , the goddess would have been fully draped; if in the fourth century, entirely without drapery. Our sculptor then belonged to neither of these periods, and combined the characteristics of both. It is a fault on his part to have placed the drapery in an impossible position, whence in actual life it would immediately fall of its own weight. The beautiful body rising above the drapery reminds us of the myth of Aphrodite emerging from the sea foam. Aphrodite was thus born and arose on a large shell, which was then carried to land,). Her beauty is a union of strength and sweetness, a perfect embodiment of a nature at harmony with itself and its surroundings. Venus de Milo (Aphrodite of Melos), famous marble statue of Aphrodite found on the Greek island of Melos in 1820 and now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. Although it is of a grandiose style that recalls the Classical Period, the Venus de Milo is from the late Hellenistic Age. Beside it stood a herma (stone pillar) on which the arm of the goddess rested. On the base of the herma was inscribed the signature of an artist, Alexandros, or Agesandros, from Antioch on the Meander, and by this signature the work can be dated from 150 bc to 100 bc. A hand holding an apple was also found on Melos, and this may have been a part of the figure; if so, Aphrodite was represented as the goddess of the â€Å"apple island† (Greek melos, â€Å"apple†). The original on which the artist based his work was probably an Aphrodite of the 4th century bc, which showed the goddess holding the shield of Ares with both hands. In the Melos statue, however, Aphrodite may have held her garment in her (now lost) right hand.

What Is a Certificate Degree

Certificate programs enable students to master a narrow subject or topic and also offer professional training in a specific field. They are usually designed for adult students and people looking for short-term training with the goal of finding immediate employment. Certificate programs are offered at the  undergraduate and graduate level and include studies in the trades as well as  academic subjects.   Certificate Programs Without a College Education Certificate programs for students with only a high school education can include plumbing, air conditioning, real estate, heating and refrigeration, computers or health care. More than half the certificate programs take a year or less to complete, which makes them a quick way to get a leg up in the job market. Admission requirements depend on the school and program, most students with a high school diploma or GED qualify for admittance. Additional requirements can include  English language skills, basic math and technology proficiency. Certificate programs are offered primarily at community colleges and career school, but the number of four-year universities offering them is increasing. Certificate Programs in Undergraduate Education Most undergraduate certificate programs can also be completed in less than a year of full-time study. Paths can include concentrations in accounting, communications, and specialties like managerial accounting, financial reporting and strategic cost analysis. University certificate program options cover a wide array of possibilities. At Portland State University in Oregon, for example, the psychology department offers a post-graduate certificate program that focuses on therapy with adoptive and foster families, and the criminal justice department offers online crime analysis and criminal behavior certificates. Montana State does a certificate program in student leadership. And Indiana State offers advanced nursing certificates in medical-surgical nursing through its continuing education division. Princeton University offers a certificate program they call a â€Å"certificate of proficiency† which lets students supplement their departmental concentration with study in another field, often an often interdisciplinary one, so they can pursue a special area of interest or particular passion. For example, a student majoring in history can pursue a certificate in musical performance; a student concentrating in literature can pursue a certificate in Russian language; and a student concentrating in biology can pursue a certificate in cognitive science. Graduate Certificate Programs Graduate certificate programs are available in professional and academic subjects. These do not equate to a graduate degree program, but rather they allow students to show that theyve mastered a specific area of interest or topic. Graduate certificates include  concentrations in nursing, health communications, social work, and entrepreneurship which can demonstrate a focus on project management, organizational leadership, negotiation strategy and venture funding. Graduate certificate programs are meant for students who already have an undergraduate Bachelor of Arts or Science. Schools may ask for a minimum GPA and other requirements based on the institution, as well as standardized test scores or a personal statement. About a third of the students who earn a certificate already have a masters or bachelors degree. Theyve gone back to school to get additional training specifically to make themselves more competitive.